Handheld X-Ray System for 3D Scatter Imaging

ABSTRACT

Handheld imaging systems and methods for using such systems to create a 3D image of a desired object using scattered radiation are described. The handheld imaging apparatus can contain a housing, a radiation source for irradiating an object with a fan beam or cone beam, and multiple detector elements for detecting backscattered radiation from the object, where each detector element has a different view of the object and collects an image of the object that is different than the other detector elements. Alternatively, the handheld imaging apparatus can contain a housing, a radiation source for irradiating an object with a pencil beam of radiation, and a detector configured to detect backscattered radiation from the object, wherein the detector and the radiation source are oriented off-axis relative to each other. The handheld imaging apparatus are used to irradiate a desired object to obtain multiple two dimensional images of the object and then creates a three dimensional image of the object using the multiple two dimensional images. Other embodiments are described.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.13/900,299, filed on May 22, 2013, which claims priority to U.S.Provisional Patent Application 61/650,354, filed May 22, 2012, theentire disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD

This application relates generally to handheld imaging systems andmethods for using such systems to create an image of a desired objectusing scattered radiation. More particularly, this application relatesto handheld x-ray systems and methods for using such systems to create athree dimensional (3D) image of a desired object using scatteredradiation.

BACKGROUND

In many industrial, military, security or medical applications, imagesof an internal structure of objects are required. Radiography is onetype of technique that can be used for imaging. Radiography generallycomprises either conventional transmission radiography or backscatterradiography. When access behind an object to be interrogated is notpossible, only backscatter radiography is possible. One method ofbackscatter imaging is Compton Backscatter Imaging (CBI), which is basedon Compton scattering.

Lateral migration radiography (LMR) is one type of imaging based on CBIthat utilizes both multiple-scatter and single-scatter photons. LMR usestwo pairs of detector with each pair having a detector that isuncollimated to predominantly image single-scatter photons and the otherdetector collimated to image predominantly multiple-scattered photons.This allows generation of two separate images, one containing primarilysurface features and the other containing primarily subsurface features.

Recently, backscatter radiography by selective detection (RSD), avariant of LMR, has been used. RSD uses a combination of single-scatterand multiple-scatter photons from a projected area below a collimationplane to generate an image. As a result, the image has a combination offirst-scatter and multiple-scatter components, offering an improvedsubsurface resolution of the image.

SUMMARY

This application relates to handheld imaging systems and methods forusing such systems to create a 3D image of a desired object usingscattered radiation. The handheld imaging apparatus can contain aradiation source for irradiating an object with a fan beam or cone beam,and multiple detector elements for detecting backscattered radiationfrom the object, where each detector element has a different view of theobject and collects an image of the object that is different than theother detector elements. Alternatively, the handheld imaging apparatuscan contain a radiation source for irradiating an object with a pencilbeam of radiation, and a detector configured to detect backscatteredradiation from the object, wherein the detector and the radiation sourceare oriented off-axis relative to each other. The handheld imagingapparatus are used to irradiate a desired object to obtain multiple twodimensional images of the object and then creates a three dimensionalimage of the object using the multiple two dimensional images.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The following description can be better understood in light of theFigures, in which:

FIG. 1 illustrates some embodiments of an imaging system usingradiography to detect backscattering;

FIG. 2 a depicts other embodiments of the imaging system and the imagesobtained from the system;

FIG. 2 b comprises a three-dimensional image obtained by using areconstruction method on the images obtained in FIG. 2 a;

FIG. 3 illustrates some embodiments of simulation details that can beused in the reconstruction method;

FIG. 4 illustrates a block diagram backscatter imaging system inaccordance with some embodiments of the invention; and

FIGS. 5 and 6 illustrate side views of some embodiments of a handheldimaging apparatus with a first configuration of detector elements;

FIG. 7 illustrates a bottom view of some embodiments of a handheldimaging apparatus with a first configuration of detector elements;

FIG. 8 illustrates a bottom view of some embodiments of a handheldimaging apparatus with a first configuration of detector elements alongwith the images shown by the detector elements;

FIG. 9 illustrate side views of some embodiments of a handheld imagingapparatus with a second configuration of detector elements;

FIG. 10 illustrates a bottom view of some embodiments of a handheldimaging apparatus with a second configuration of detector elements alongwith the images shown by the detector elements;

FIG. 11 illustrates a side view of some embodiments of a handheldimaging apparatus with a third configuration of detector elements;

FIGS. 12 and 13 illustrate bottom views of some embodiments of ahandheld imaging apparatus with a third configuration of detectorelements;

FIGS. 14 and 15 depict side views of other embodiments of a handheldimaging apparatus; and

FIG. 16 illustrates various scanning orientations of an object by thehandheld imaging apparatus of in FIGS. 14-15.

The Figures illustrate specific aspects of the handheld systems andmethods for using the handheld x-ray systems to create 3D images basedon backscattered x-rays. Together with the following description, theFigures demonstrate and explain the principles of the structures,methods, and principles described herein. In the drawings, the thicknessand size of components may be exaggerated or otherwise modified forclarity. The same reference numerals in different drawings represent thesame element, and thus their descriptions will not be repeated.Furthermore, well-known structures, materials, or operations are notshown or described in detail to avoid obscuring aspects of the describeddevices. Moreover, the Figures may show simplified or partial views, andthe dimensions of elements in the Figures may be exaggerated orotherwise not in proportion for clarity.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The following description supplies specific details in order to providea thorough understanding. Nevertheless, the skilled artisan willunderstand that the described imaging system and associated methods ofmaking and using the system can be implemented and used withoutemploying these specific details. Indeed, the imaging system andassociated methods can be placed into practice by modifying thedescribed systems and methods and can be used in conjunction with anyother apparatus and techniques conventionally used in the industry. Forexample, while the description below focuses on using the imaging systemfor backscatter x-rays, it could be used for other types of radiations,such as gamma rays, neutrons, electron beams, or combinations thereof.

As the terms on, attached to, or coupled to are used herein, one object(e.g., a material, a layer, a substrate, etc.) can be on, attached to,or coupled to another object regardless of whether the one object isdirectly on, attached, or coupled to the other object or there are oneor more intervening objects between the one object and the other object.Also, directions (e.g., above, below, top, bottom, side, up, down,under, over, upper, lower, horizontal, vertical, “x,” “y,” “z,” etc.),if provided, are relative and provided solely by way of example and forease of illustration and discussion and not by way of limitation. Inaddition, where reference is made to a list of elements (e.g., elementsa, b, c), such reference is intended to include any one of the listedelements by itself, any combination of less than all of the listedelements, and/or a combination of all of the listed elements.

Some embodiments of non-handheld imaging systems and methods for usingsuch systems to create an image of a desired object using scatteredradiation (including backscattered radiation) are shown in FIGS. 1-4.FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic representation of a non-handheld imagingsystem which can be used for detecting backscattered radiation. As usedherein, scattering radiation includes any backscattering (with an angleless than about 90 degrees) or forward scattering radiation (with anangle of 91 to 180 degrees) occurring away from the surface of theirradiated object or material.

The system 5 contains a source of radiation 10. The radiation source (orsource) 10 can be any source (or sources) of radiation that penetratesthe desired object (or objects), including an x-ray source, a gamma raysource, a neutron source, an electron beam source, or combinationsthereof. The source 10 irradiates the desired object area (including theobject itself) using the desired type of radiation to a desired depth.

In some embodiments, the amount of radiation (or intensity) from thesource 10 can be controlled and customized for a specific object. Forexample, the radiation source 10 can be controlled to provide a photonillumination (energy) spectrum with an average depth in the object toobtain the detail needed to create an image. In another example, theradiation intensity provided by radiation source 10 can be sufficientlylow so as to not saturate the detector 12 (described below).

As shown in FIG. 1, the radiation source 10 transmits radiation 26 whichpartially or completely penetrates the surface of a material 22 that ispart of an object or object volume to be analyzed. The radiation 26strikes internal portions of the material 22, such as cracks 20, voids18, or hidden objects in the material 22. Those internal portions in thematerial 22 then backscatter a portion of the radiation 26 asbackscattered radiation 28. In some configurations, the radiation source10 is also capable of independent motion in different directionsincluding rotation, in-and-out movement of the radiation source 10 fromthe object region, and angular movement. The radiation source 10 can beadjusted to select or focus on the object that is being analyzed orscanner by the beam 13 of radiation 26. Alternatively, the radiationsource can be stationary and the object can be movable.

The beam 13 from the radiation source 10 can be configured to be anytype of known beam. In some configurations, the beam can be configuredas a pencil beam, fan beam, cone beam, or combinations thereof. In someinstances, a fan beam or cone beam can be used since they can create ahigher intensity backscatter field and have a larger field of view thana pencil beam, thereby saving time due to the simultaneous collectionfrom a larger field of view. The width and/or length of the fan and/orcone beam can be adjusted to enhance the resolution of the image.

Where a fan beam is used, it can be configured by utilizing an aperture.In these embodiments, the beam of radiation can be passed through theaperture such that the output from the aperture is a fan beam ofradiation. These embodiments can increase the analysis speed byradiating a line of the object, instead of only a spot radiated by apencil beam, and by using the fan beam to create a higher intensitybackscatter field.

The system 5 also contains a detector 12. The detector 12 can be anydetector (or detectors) of radiation that can detect the radiationscattered from the object. In some embodiments, the detector can includean x-ray detector, a gamma ray detector, a neutron detector, an electronbeam detector, or combinations thereof. In other embodiments, thedetector 12 can comprise NaI scintillator crystals, plasticscintillators, photostimuable phosphor-based image plates, TFT-basedflat panel detectors, amorphous silicon panels, or combinations thereof.For example, for x-ray radiography on a large area image, aphotostimuable phosphor-based imaging plate and/or an amorphous siliconpanel (ASP) conversion screen bonded to an array of photosensitivediodes.

The detector(s) can be separated into multiple detector segments thateach detects radiation along a single path or line of sight. Thisseparation can be accomplished using any mechanism that isolates eachsegment so that it only receives radiation along that path. For example,in the embodiments depicted in FIG. 1, the detector 12 comprises acollimator 14 coupled to the detector 12 and so is referred to as acollimated detector 15. The collimator contains multiple detectorsegments within each grid of the collimator. In the embodiments depictedin FIG. 1, the radiation source 10 and the collimated detector 15 can bedisposed on the same side of the object region to be analyzed. Theradiation source 10 can generate photons that are directed toward theobject region. The collimated detector 15 collects photons that arebackscattered from the surfaces of the object and from objects hidden orvoids beneath the surfaces. The collimated detector not only detects thebackscattered radiation, but also assists in generatingthree-dimensional images of the object area, including hidden objectsand/or voids.

The collimator 14 can include any of a variety of cross sectional areas,including a cylindrical, elliptical (non-circular), or rectangular. Insome embodiments, the collimator 14 and the detector 12 have the shapeso that any or all of the backscattered radiation that travels throughthe collimator 14 is detected. The collimator 14 may include any numberof collimator features with various geometries including fins, slats,screens, and/or plates that may be curvilinear or flat. In someembodiments, the collimator 14 (and such features) can be formed fromany known radiation absorbing material, such as lead. In otherembodiments, the collimator 14 (and such features) can be formed fromradiation reflective material, such as high density plastic, aluminum,or combinations thereof. These latter embodiments are helpful whenenhancement, rather than removal, of certain backscatter radiation isdesired. In some configurations, the collimator features can be orientedsubstantially perpendicular to the surface of the detector 12. In otherconfigurations, the collimator features can be given any orientationrelative to the detector 12 that provides the desired line of sightradiation for each segment.

In some configurations, the separation of the detector using thecollimator can create apertures 16. Backscattered radiation from theobject reaches the detector 12 through the apertures 16 if thebackscatter direction is substantially parallel to the collimatorfeatures or has a narrow enough angle to travel through the aperturewithout being absorbed by the collimator feature. The collimatorfeatures can be modified to allow for a wider aperture to allow in morebackscattered radiation or a narrower aperture to decrease thebackscattered radiation from the object.

In some embodiments, the collimator 14 may be adjustable to alter thedirection of the backscattered radiation which can reach the detector.In these embodiments, the position and/or orientation of the collimatorfeatures can be modified to change the position and/or orientation bymanual mechanisms or by automatic mechanisms, such as through computercontrolled motor drives.

The collimator 14 can be coupled to the detector using any knowntechnique. In some embodiments, the collimator 14 can be opticallycoupled to the detector 12 so that radiation passing by the collimator14 reaches the detector 12 and is measured, creating a collimateddetector 15. In other embodiments, the collimator 14 can be physicallyattached to the detector 12.

The collimated detector 15 can move in different directions includingrotation, in-and-out movement from the object region, and angularmovement. In some configurations, the collimator 14 can move indifferent directions relative to the detector, including rotation,in-and-out movement, and angular movement. These movements can focus theimage by selecting and/or isolating the desired backscattered radiation.In other words, adjusting the collimated detector 15 allows the user toselect and isolate particular vectors of backscattered radiation totravel through the aperture 16 and be detected by the detector 12.Alternatively, the collimated detector can be stationary and the objectmovable.

In some embodiments, the radiation source 10 and the collimated detector15 may be attached to a moving structure (such as plate 24), as shown inFIG. 1. The plate 24 has a movement axis that is substantiallyperpendicular to the object. In some embodiments, this movement axis isa rotational axis and so the plate 24 is a rotational plate. (Suchrotational axis is shown as axis 35 in FIG. 2 a.) The radiation source10 and collimated detector 15 may be attached to the plate 24 as knownin the art, such as poles 17 extending from the rotating plate 24. Theradiation source 10 and collimated detector 15 may be located at anylocation along the plate 24 and this location can be fixed or altered asdesired. This configuration allows both the collimated detector 15 todetect backscatter and the source 10 to irradiate the object from anylocation along the plate 24.

In these embodiments, the rotational axis of the plate 24 allows thesource 10 and collimated detector 15 to be rotated about the objectregion while maintaining a similar distance and orientation from theobject. Independent adjustments can be made to the source 10 andcollimated detector 15 to change the distance and orientation from theobject, if needed. In some configurations, the plate 24 may comprise asingle plate so the source 10 and the collimated detector 15 remain atabout an 180° angle relative each other. In other configurations, theplate 24 may be two plates, attached or separate, to allow the radiationsource 10 and collimated detector 15 to be rotated independently andoriented at any desired angle relative to each other. For example, theradiation source 10 may remain in a fixed position while the collimateddetector 15 can be rotated to create various angles of orientationrelative to the source 10.

In some embodiments, the system 5 can be contained in a protective andsupportive housing which can be made from any known flexible and/orknown lightweight materials. The housing holds the various components ofthe system 5 in place. Lightweight housing materials facilitateportability of the system, which can be advantageous in certainapplications. Using such materials also allows the housing to bemanufactured in a variety of desired shapes and allows the system to berelatively lightweight to make it easy to transport. In someembodiments, the system 5 can be configured as a compact system so thatit is readily transportable and adopted to work within confined spaces.

In some embodiments, the system 105 can be used to detect backscatteredradiation, as shown in FIG. 2 a. In this Figure, a radiation source 30transmits radiation 40 which penetrates the surface of a material 36 andstrikes internal details such as voids 42 and 44, hidden objects, and/orcracks (not shown) in the material 36. These internal details in thematerial 36 then backscatter a portion of the transmitted radiation 41.The backscatter 41 can pass through a collimator 34 and be detected bythe detector 32.

In these embodiments, the radiation source 30 can generate photons thatare directed toward an object (including object region 38) and thecollimated detector 33 collects photons that are backscattered from thescanned surface and from the internal details beneath the scannedsurface. The object region 38 can be shifted by independent adjustmentsto the radiation source 30 or by changing the location of the radiationsource 30 along a rotating plate 37. For example, adjustments can bemade to the object region 38 by changing the distance from the radiationsource 30 to the object region 38, which will shrink or enlarge amountof the object region 38 being irradiated. Further, the object region 38can be shifted by changing the angle of the radiation source 30 withrespect to the object region 38.

In these embodiments, the beam from the radiation source 30 may be apencil beam, a fan beam, or a cone beam. With a cone beam it is possibleto scan the entire object region 38 without the need to move or modifythe radiation source 30. The cone beam may also be moved to increase ordecrease the size of the object region. When using a pencil beam or fanbeam, it can scan a specific part of the object region 38. The imagingsystem 105 can use any scanning design, including raster scanning, tocreate a desired object region 38. The object region 38 can be a varietyof cross sectional areas, including cylindrical, elliptical(non-circular), or rectangular (includes square). As explained infurther detail below, data gathered from multiple orientations of theradiation source 30 and collimated detector 33 should be ofapproximately the same object region 38.

The configuration of the radiation source 30 and the collimated detector33 allow the acquisition of multiple sets of data or images from theobject region 38. Therefore, it is possible to obtain multiple images ofthe same object region 38 from different orientations between theradiation source 30 and the collimated detector 33. In some embodiments,the orientation between the source 30 and the collimated detector 33 canrange from about 1° up to about 359° relative to each other. Forexample, an image of an object region 38 may be collected when theradiation source 30 and the collimated detector 33 are initially at a180° angle with respect to each other, and thereafter the radiationsource 30 can be rotated in 10° increments around the object region 38,collecting an image at each location. The subsequent application of acomputer model on these multiple images will allow a three-dimensionalreconstruction of the object region 38.

As shown in FIG. 2 a, multiple images 46, 48, 50, and 52 can be takenfrom various configurations of the radiation source 30 and thecollimated detector 33. Although FIG. 2 a depicts four images, anynumber of images could be used to obtain a three-dimensionalreconstruction. In some embodiments, the number of images can range from2 (with appropriate constraints) to any desired number. In otherembodiments, the number of images can range from 3 or 4 to 10 or 15. Ofcourse, the more images that are taken, the better the resolution of the3D reconstruction.

Image 46 can be obtained by data collected from the configuration of thesource 30 and collimated detector 33 depicted in FIG. 2 a. The voids 42and 44 found in the material 36 can be depicted in image 46 astwo-dimensional objects 42 a and 44 a. Image 48 can be obtained byrotating the radiation source 30 and/or the collimated detector 33 bythe desired amount and collecting additional data to depict the voids 42and 44 as two-dimensional objects 42 b and 44 b. To obtain image 48, theradiation source 30 and collimated detector 33 were both rotated 90°about the object region 38 in the same direction (e.g. remaining at a180° angle with respect to each other). Image 50 can be obtained byrotating both the radiation source 30 and collimated detector 33 another90° about the object region 38 in the same direction depicting the voids42 and 44 as two-dimensional objects 42 c and 44 c. In someconfigurations, the configuration used to generate image 50 could be theminor image of the configuration shown in FIG. 2 a, having the radiationsource 30 located on the right side of the system and the collimateddetector located on the left side of the system. Image 52 is obtained byagain rotating the radiation source 30 and collimated detector 33another 90° about the object region 38 in the same direction depictingthe voids 42 and 44 as two-dimensional objects 42 d and 44 d.

Rotation about the object region 38 can be accomplished by rotatingplate 37 around rotational axis 35 that is oriented substantiallyperpendicular to the material 36. In these embodiments, the plate 37 maybe a single plate that rotates the radiation source 30 and collimateddetector 33 at the same rotational distance from each other (i.e. theradiation source 30 and collimated detector 33 remain 180° from eachother). In other embodiments, the plate 37 may be two plates, attachedor separate, that allow the radiation source 30 and collimated detector33 to rotate at different rotational distances with respect to eachother. Rotation about the object region can also be accomplished bykeeping the radiation source 30 and collimated detector 33 stationaryand rotating the object region 38.

FIG. 2 b depicts a three-dimensional (3D) structure of the object region38 and voids 42 and 44 using the images 46, 48, 50, and 52. This 3Dstructure can be obtained using the reconstruction method describedherein. The reconstruction method can be used to supply athree-dimensional structure of any desired feature of the material 36,including voids, cracks, corrosion, delaminations, or other hiddenobjects.

The mathematical formulation, which gives rise to a forward orgenerative model, for use in reconstruction is as follows. Theformulation only considers photons returning to the detector from asingle backscatter rather than multiple scattering events. Thecollimated detector establishes a set of apertures each of which has anassociated line of sight. Incident photons move along the associatedline of sight, which is a three-dimensional space defined by thelocation and orientation of the aperture.

FIG. 3 shows the simulation details for an embodiment of thereconstruction method. The region of space 61 to be imaged is called theobject region. The position along collimated line 72 a distance s fromthe detector segment 63 is referred to as d(s). For the purposes of thisdiscussion detector segment 63 may be a portion of detectors, such asdetector 12 or 32 discussed above. Line 68 connects d(s) with source 10.The position along the line 68 a distance t from the radiation source isreferred to as e(s,t). The distance from d(s) to the radiation source 10is referred to as f.

The expression for the number of photons, or signal intensity, reachingthe detector segment 63 from backscatter at d(s) can include four terms:(A) the number of photons radiated from the radiation source 10, (B) theloss of intensity traveling along line 68 from the radiation source 10as it passes through a material in the object region to reach d(s), (C)the fraction of that intensity that is scattered along line 72, and (D)the loss of intensity as the backscattered photons travel along line 72to the detector. The cumulative effects of terms A, B, C, and D aremultiplicative and thus the mathematical expression for the intensityreaching the detector along a single path i, from a backscatter at adistance s is:

$\begin{matrix}{{{E_{i}(s)} = {{A \times B \times C \times D} = {E_{o}^{- {\int_{0}^{f}{{\rho {({e_{i}{({t,s})}})}}\ {t}}}}{\gamma \left( {\theta_{i}(s)} \right)}{\rho \left( {d_{i}(s)} \right)}^{- {\int_{s}^{\theta}{{\rho {({d_{i}(\ q)})}}{q}}}}}}},} & (1)\end{matrix}$

where E₀ is the intensity of the radiation source 10, ρ(x) is thematerial density as a function of the position x in the object region,θ_(i)(s) is the angle formed by the two lines 68 and 72, and γ(θ_(i)(s))is the differential scattering cross section as a function of the angleat which the two lines meet. In order to model the effects of Comptonscattering γ(θ_(i)(s)) can be set equal to cos²(θ). Alternatively, othermodels of the scattering can be used and substituted into equation (1).

The total intensity traveling along path i is the integral of all thebackscatter events along the line 72. This is:

$\begin{matrix}{{E_{i} - {\int_{0}^{\infty}{{E_{i}(s)}\ {s}}} - {E_{0}{\int_{0}^{\infty}{^{\int_{0}^{f}{{\rho {({e_{i}{({t,s})}})}}\ {t}}}{\gamma \left( {\theta_{i}(s)} \right)}{\rho \left( {d_{i}(s)} \right)}^{\int_{s}^{\theta}{{\rho {({d_{i}(\ q)})}}{q}}}\ {s}}}}},} & (2)\end{matrix}$

where, in practice, the integral along d(s) ends at the effectiveboundaries of the object region (i.e. no material or signal becomesinsignificant).

The basic form of equations 1 and 2, unlike conventional tomography ortomosynthesis, does not lend itself to an easy decomposition into linearexpressions of ρ, the image density. Rather there is a nonlinear mixtureof terms—a combination of the multiplicative effect of thebackscattering term with the exponential terms that model the intensityloss and the composition of backscattering along the line of sight,represented as the outermost integral in Equation 2.

For reconstruction the term A=E₀ can be treated as a constant andabsorbed into the detector units. The constant can be estimated globallyor measured separately before imaging. The form for Equation 2 in termsof the integral along the detector segment line of sight and the imagedensity therefore becomes:

$\begin{matrix}{{\frac{E_{i}}{E_{0}} = {\int_{0}^{\infty}{{B_{i}\left( {\rho,s} \right)}{C_{i}(s)}{\rho \left( {d_{i}(s)} \right)}{D_{i}\left( {\rho,s} \right)}\ {s}}}},} & (3)\end{matrix}$

where the functions B_(i) and D_(i) are nonlinear functions of ρ.

By treating the nonlinear interactions as secondary and using a fixedestimate for ρ, denoted as {circumflex over (ρ)}, the equation becomes:

$\begin{matrix}{{M_{i} = {\frac{E_{i}}{E_{0}} = {{\int_{0}^{\infty}{{B_{i}\left( {\rho,s} \right)}{C_{i}(s)}{\rho \left( {d_{i}(s)} \right)}{D_{i}\left( {\rho,s} \right)}\ {s}}} = {\int_{0}^{\infty}{{w_{i}(s)}{\rho \left( {d_{i}(s)} \right)}}}}}},} & (4)\end{matrix}$

where the terms that do not depend explicitly on ρ into w_(i) (s) arecombined. The result is a linear operator, and thus, an expression forthe image formulation that is of the same form as a conventional x-rayformation—and, by analogy, tomographic reconstruction.

Considering the discrete form of Equation 4, the approximation of ρ on agrid or individual detector segment is denoted as R_(k), the value of pat a grid location is denoted as X_(k), and the number of projectionimages collected as N. The discrete reconstruction R_(k) is designed tooptimize the total difference between the measured detector intensitiesand those simulated from applying the imaging model to the discretereconstruction, R_(k). As shown in equation (4), the function w_(i)(s)can be captured as a set of weights W_(ij) that measures therelationship between the fixed estimated {circumflex over (ρ)}, thesolution on the grid R_(k) where the backscatter occurs, and thecorresponding line integrals from the radiation source 10 and detectorsegment 63 to the point. Then the reconstruction is formulated as:

$\begin{matrix}{{R = {{argmax}_{R}{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{N}\; \left( {{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{M}\; {W_{ij}R_{j}}} - M_{i}} \right)^{2}}}},} & (5)\end{matrix}$

where M is the number of grid points (e.g., detector segments) in thereconstruction, and R represents the entire collection of grid points inthe solution. R represents the object that is to be reconstructed and Mrepresents the projection data collected. The weights W_(ij) can becomputed in a manner that is similar to conventional computertomography, that is, by using a linear interpolation (e.g. trilinear in3D) and using the geometric relationships between the grid and the lineintegral to establish this linear dependence for each pair of points onthe detector and the reconstruction grid.

The least squares problem in Equation (5) can be solved as anover-constrained linear system. The linear system in Equation (5) can besolved in a variety of ways including standard numerical relaxation(linear system) methods and conventional iterative methods such as thealgebraic reconstruction technique (ART) or simultaneous algebraicreconstruction technique (SART). If SART is used, the algorithmformulates the reconstruction problem as finding an array of unknownvariables using algebraic equations from the projection data. It is aniterative reconstruction algorithm, which has the advantage ofrobustness to noise and incomplete projection data. As the ART and SARTalgorithms, and variations thereof, are known to one of skill in theart, they will not be described further.

Due to the nature of the formulation and underlying physics, {circumflexover (ρ)} can be treated as fixed. Because the integrals in Equation (4)average (or smooth) the effects of the material properties betweensource-detector and position of the backscatter, and thus, aggregatematerial properties along the rays is sufficient to obtain some level ofaccuracy in the reconstruction.

The accuracy results depend on the accuracy of the models of theintensity loss that takes places as radiation moves to and from thepoint of backscatter. Iterative reconstruction can be used, denoting asa sequence of solutions R⁰, R¹, R², . . . , and a sequence of discreteestimates of the solution used to model intensity loss {circumflex over(R)}⁰, {circumflex over (R)}¹, {circumflex over (R)}², . . . . Thisgives a sequence of weights in the linear system, W_(ij) ^(l). Inimplementation, the estimates of {circumflex over (R)}^(j) simply lag inthe formulation. In this way {circumflex over (R)}^(l)=R^(l-1) and W^(l)can be computed from the intensity loss estimated from the previoussolution and they change with each subsequent iteration. Such schemescan be effective for nonlinear optimization problem (i.e., let thenonlinear terms lag).

Some embodiments pertain to a method and apparatus for a single-sided,non-destructive imaging technique utilizing the penetrating power ofradiation to image subsurface and surface features. These embodimentscan be used for a variety of applications including non-destructiveexamination, medical imaging, military, and security purposes.

Implementation of the reconstruction algorithms can be convenientlyperformed using various means for reconstruction. In some embodiments, aconventional processing system (such as, for example, a computer) canprovide a means for reconstruction using computer tomography. Inparticular, the algorithms can be implemented in software for executionon one or more general purpose or specialized processor(s). The softwarecan be compiled or interpreted to produce machine executableinstructions that are executed by the processor(s). The processor canaccept as inputs any of the following:

-   -   a. Orientation/position of the object relative to the source    -   b. Orientation/position of the object relative to the detector    -   c. Output signal (array of signals) from the detector

If desired, the processor can also control the relative positioning ofthe object relative to the source and detector. Thus, the processor canoutput any of the following:

-   -   a. Rotational control for the object    -   b. Linear positioning control for the source    -   c. Linear positioning control for the detector

FIG. 4 illustrates an example of a system for backscatter imaging. Thesystem 400 can include a computer subsystem 402 (which can, for example,be a personal computer, tablet computer, workstation, web server, or thelike). In some embodiments, the computer subsystem 402 may comprisemultiple devices that share computing resources. For example, thecomputer subsystem 402 may include computational capacity in thehandheld device and the capacities in a tablet computer, which may beused to display the rendered images to a user. The computer system canbe of conventional design, including a processor, memory (data storageand program storage), and input/output. The computer system can includea display (e.g., for displaying reconstructed images) and human inputdevices (e.g., keyboard, mouse, tablet, etc.). The computer system caninterface to a radiation source 404, to and provide control information406 to the radiation source. For example, control information canprovide for turning on/off the radiation output of the source andsetting the source output intensity. The system can include mechanicalmeans (e.g., as described above) for moving the source, in which casethe control information can also control the position/orientation of thesource.

The system 400 can also include a detector 408 which can providemeasurements 410 of detected backscattered radiation to the computersystem 402. For example, the measurements can be digital data providedfrom the detector. As another example, the measurements can be analogdata, and can be converted (e.g., using an analog to digital converter)into digital form before processing. The system can include mechanicalmeans (e.g., as described above) for moving the detector, in which casecontrol information 412 can be provided from the computer system to thedetector to control the position/orientation of the detector.

The computer system 402 can be programmed to implement reconstructiontechniques (e.g., as described above) to combine data from multipletwo-dimensional slices of detected backscattered radiation 410 to form athree-dimensional reconstructed image. The three-dimensionalreconstructed image can be output for display, stored in a memory forlater use, or transmitted via a communications link (e.g., the Internet)to another location for display or storage. In some embodiments, thesystem 400 can also include mechanisms for moving the object to beimaged (e.g., as described above) in which case the computer system 402can provide control output 414 for controlling the position/orientationof the object.

These imaging systems described above can be used to detecting flaws anddefects in materials and structures, scanners for detecting targetobjects and/or foreign object debris inside of walls and structures,devices for security purposes to identify objects hidden in walls,containers or on individuals, portal scanning, law enforcement and othersecurity applications, and medical imaging.

Some conventional x-ray systems use a collimated moving pencil beam ofx-rays to irradiate the sample and a large area-detector to collect thescattered x-rays. For 3-D imaging, the collimated detectors are used tocollect x-rays from a known scattering angle, and the sample is rasterscanned to get the x-y information. The depth information can becollected at the intersection of the collimated x-ray beam andcollimated detector. Some of these systems provide only a 2-D image,without any depth information to show the location of the feature ofinterest below the surface. On the other hand, a 3-D imaging method canbe used determine the location of a feature of interest within a largervolume.

The x-ray systems and methods described above improve on someconventional x-ray systems by using a collimated multi-element detectorarray and a fan or cone-beam x-ray source to collect a complete 2-Dscatter image. The assembly is then rotated in space to obtain multiple2-D images from which a 3-D computed tomography reconstructed image canbe obtained. But still the systems described above can be bulky andheavy since large components are used in order to obtain a high imageresolution. In fact, such systems are not handheld because the weight ofthe systems can often be about 200 lbs.

In the embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 5-13 and those depicted in FIGS.14-16, the imaging systems are configured so that they are smaller,lighter, and handheld. In these embodiments, the handheld systems canstill be used to create an image of a desired object using scatteredradiation, including backscattered x-ray radiation. In the embodimentsshown in FIGS. 5-13, the handheld imaging systems are configured with acone beam of radiation that strikes the desired object. Thebackscattered radiation is then detected by multiple detector elementsthat are oriented differently and that are collimated. Multiple 2-Dimages can be collected simultaneously from the multiple detectorelements and then used to create the 3D image.

Some configurations of these handheld imaging systems are configured inFIGS. 5-8. As shown in FIG. 5, the system 500 may include a hand-heldx-ray device 540 and a display 580 to show an image 582 of the desiredobject 562 (often embedded in a matrix 560) that has been created usingthe hand-held device 540. The display 580 may communicate with thehand-held x-ray device 540 through a communication connection 584. Thehand-held x-ray device connection 584 may be wired or wireless, and maybe remote or local. Examples of some wireless transmission mechanismsinclude 802.11 protocols, wireless application protocols (WAP),Bluetooth technology, or combinations thereof.

Any display mechanism can be used as display 580. Examples of displaysthat can be used in the system 500 include films, imaging plates, anddigital image displays such as cathode ray tubes (CRT), or liquidcrystal display (LCD) screens. In some configurations, the display 580can be integrated into the housing 542 of the x-ray device 540. Suchintegration, however, will limit the size of the display since too largea display can detract from the portability of the handheld device 540.In these integrated configurations, any small display with sufficientresolution can be used, including liquid crystal display (LCD) screens.In other configurations, the display can be located external to thex-ray device 540. In these configurations, a separate imaging plate(such as a CMOS or TFT plate) for larger features (such as medical orveterinary imaging) can be used. The separate imaging plate can beconnected to the remainder of the x-ray device so that it receives theimage to display. In some configurations, the display 580 can containmultiple displays with each display matched with a detector element (asdescribed below).

As shown in FIGS. 5-6, the x-ray device 540 contains a housing orchassis 542 enclosing all the internal components of the x-ray device540. The housing 542 contains a window (or opening) 505 through whichx-rays 515 are emitted and strike the desired object 562 embedded in thematrix 560. The window 505 can be configured for the desired object 562so that the desired amount of x-rays 515 is emitted to strike the object562. Thus, the window 505 can be configured to be smaller than, largerthan, or about the same size as the desired object 562.

In the embodiments shown in FIG. 5, the x-ray device 540 may contain abase 544 with a partial shield 546. The partial shield 546 is locatedbehind the detectors so that the detectors are not blocked while alsopartially protecting the user of the x-ray devices from backscatteredradiation.

As best shown in FIG. 6, the device 540 contains an x-ray tube 510 whichcontains an x-ray source (not shown) for producing the emitted x-rays515. The x-ray tube 510 contains an aperture 508 through which thex-rays are emitted from the x-ray source and into the x-ray device 540.In some configurations, the x-rays are emitted as a fan beam and so theaperture is configured accordingly. In other configurations, the x-raysare emitted as a cone beam, as shown in FIG. 6, and the aperture 508 isconfigured accordingly. Where a fan beam is used, the device 520 wouldhave to scan the beam across the desired object so that the full samplearea is illuminated and the user would have to collect the 2D images ateach position of the fan beam and a large number of such 2D images wouldhave to be collected. By using a cone beam, the user only need tocollect one 2D image in each detector.

The x-ray device 540 also contains a power system 570 to provide powerfor the x-ray device 540. The power system 570 can contain both aninternal power supply that is connected to an internal power source.Details of such a system are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,496,178 and7,224,769, the entire disclosures of which are incorporated herein byreference. In other configurations, the power source can be locatedexternal to the device.

The x-ray device 540 also contains any other components for efficientoperation, such as a controller and other electronics (collectivelydepicted as electronics 574). Further details of such components aredescribed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,496,178 and 7,224,769, the entiredisclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference.

The x-ray device 540 also contains a detector for detecting or sensingthe scattered radiation (i.e., x-rays) 525. Any detector that issensitive to x-ray radiation (or the other types of radiation describedherein) can be used in the handheld x-ray device 540. Examples of suchdetectors include x-rays receptors, x-ray film, CCD sensors, CMOSsensors, TFT sensors, imaging plates, image intensifiers, orcombinations thereof.

In some configurations, the detector used in the x-ray device 540comprises the detector elements 548 depicted in FIGS. 5, 6, and 7. Inthese configurations, the detector is separated into multiple detectorelements 548 that are spaced around the object 562. The detector can beseparated into any number of detector elements, with as few as 2 or asmany as thousands or millions of pixels. In the illustrated embodiments,the detector has been separated into 6 detector elements 548 that areevenly spaced around the circumference of the object (i.e., every 60degrees). In other embodiments, though, the detector elements 548 neednot so be evenly spaced.

The individual detector elements 548 can all have substantially the samesize or can have different sizes. In the illustrated embodiments, all ofthe detector elements 548 have substantially the same size. The size ofthe detector elements 548 can be based on the expected size of thedesired object 562 being imaged.

The individual detector elements 548 can all have substantially the sameshape or can have a different shape. In the illustrated embodiments, allof the detector elements have substantially the same rectangular shape.The shape of the detector elements used is based on the expected shapeof the desired object 562 being imaged. In some embodiments, thedetector elements can be any shape, include rectangular, square,annular, polygonal, circular, oblong, or any combination thereof.

In the embodiments shown in FIG. 6, the detector elements 548 cancomprise an active detector pixel (i.e., a photodiode) 530 that has beenplaced on the bottom of a scintillator 535. In these embodiments, theactive detector pixels 530 are sensitive to—and therefore detect—light.The scintillator 535 can be used to convert the backscattered x-rays 525to light which then impinges on the active detector pixels 530. Theactive detector pixels 530 then display the light image they receive onthe display 580 (or a portion thereof). Such embodiments can be usefulbecause they can be cheaper to use than other x-ray detectors.

The x-ray device 540 also contains a collimator that separates eachdetector element into multiple detector segments that each detectradiation along a single path or line of sight. In the embodimentsdepicted in FIGS. 6-7, each detector element 548 is attached to one endof a collimator structure (or collimator) 512 that contains a series ofgrid elements 555. The collimator 512 can include any of a variety ofcross sectional areas, including a cylindrical, elliptical(non-circular), or rectangular and can have any number of features withvarious geometries including fins, slats, screens, and/or plates thatmay be curvilinear or flat.

The backscattered radiation 525 from the object 562 reaches the detectorelements 548 through the apertures 528 in the collimator 512. If thebackscatter direction of the x-ray is substantially parallel to thedirection of the collimator 512 or has a narrow enough angle to travelthrough the aperture 528 (as shown in FIG. 6 by beam 526), it willstrike the scintillator 535 without being absorbed by the collimatorgrid elements 555. Non-substantially parallel x-ray beams (as shown bybeam 527) will be absorbed by the collimator grid elements 555.

Accordingly, the collimator 512 can be configured with any size andshape that operates with the detector element 548 to absorb any off-axisbackscattered x-rays while allowing substantially parallel orientedx-rays to strike the detector elements 548. The collimator 512 can alsohave any desired length or width for the grid elements 555. As well, thecollimator 512 can be modified to allow for a wider aperture to allow inmore backscattered radiation or a narrower aperture to decrease thebackscattered radiation from the object.

In some configurations, the collimator 512 can be oriented substantiallyperpendicular to the surface of the detector elements 548. Theseconfigurations are illustrated in FIG. 6 where each collimator gridelement 555 is oriented substantially perpendicular to the detectorelements 548.

In these configurations, the parallel-plate collimator restricts thefield of view of each detector segment to a single line of sight to thedesired object 562. Thus, each detector element 548 (i.e., A through F)has a different view of the key, as shown in FIG. 8. For example, wherethe object to be imaged is a key, FIG. 8 illustrates that each differentdetector element captures and can display a different image 549 of thekey.

In other configurations, though, the collimator features can be given anon-parallel orientation. One example of a non-parallel orientation ofthe collimator is illustrated in FIG. 9, where the collimator featuresare configured so that they have a focusing orientation so that theyfocus the backscattered radiation on the detector elements. With afocusing orientation, the open end of the collimator 512 (nearer theobject 562) has a width larger than the width at the opposite end of thecollimator (where it connects with the scintillator 535). This focusingorientation can be useful when each detector element needs a morecomplete image 551 of the desired object, as shown in FIG. 10. Suchimages can be compared to FIG. 8 where the image of the key 549 on thedetector element is cut off because each detector element 548 is smallerthan the object to be imaged (key). This smaller image results from theparallel plate collimator because it only allows the detector to “see” afield of view that is the size of the detector element.

To obtain a more complete image of the key, other configurations of thehandheld device 540 configures the detector elements 548 to be larger.But increasing the size of the detector element is not always possible.So instead, the focusing orientation of the collimator features can beused to provide a wider field-of-view for each detector segment. Butwith the focusing orientation, the image resolution can be worse thanthe parallel plate orientation because the wider aperture opening on thesample end of the collimator allows a wider incident angle for thebackscattered photons from the sample surface. Whether to use a parallelplate orientation or a focusing orientation will depend on the size ofthe object to be imaged, the size of each detector element, the need toincrease the flux, or the need to maintain the best possible spatialresolution.

In other configurations, though, the collimator can have areverse-focusing orientation. With a reverse-focusing orientation, theopen end of the collimator has a width smaller than the width at theopposite end of the collimator. This reverse focusing orientation can beuseful when better spatial resolution is required.

In other embodiments, the detector elements 548 can be disposed on aplane that is substantially parallel to the plane of the object 562being analyzed. These embodiments are depicted in FIG. 11 where thedetector elements 548 can be disposed on a plane substantially parallelto the key 562. This configuration may allow the detector elements 548to be positioned closer to the key 562, which can improve the signal tonoise ratio and allow for a shorter collection time. The imageresolution can also be improved in these embodiments since thedivergence of each backscattered x-ray beam 525 is a function of thedistance from the collimator 512 to the key. At long distances, thespatial resolution can be degraded due to overlapping field of view foreach detector pixel 530. This effect can be minimized by locating thedetector elements 548 as close as possible to the object 562 to beimaged.

The distance between the device and the desired object is, in part, afunction of the image distance from the end of the collimator as a ratioof the collimator thickness. Closer distances give a better surfaceresolution while locating the device farther away allows a steeper anglefor the detector, which yields better depth resolution.

In these embodiments, the collimator grid elements 555 can be angled toallow each detector element 548 to view substantially the same field ofview of the object, as shown in FIG. 12. By changing the orientation ofthe detector elements 548, the orientation of the collimator 512 has tobe changed correspondingly so that only substantially parallel x-rays526 are transmitted through—and off-axis x-rays 527 are absorbed by—thecollimator 512.

In the embodiments shown in FIG. 12, the collimator features are stilloriented substantially parallel to each other. This configurationprovides a substantially 1:1 view of the object. In other embodiments,though, a reverse-focusing collimator can be used to achieve geometricalmagnification on the detector (with degraded spatial resolution). Instill other embodiments, focusing collimators can be used to achieveoptimum spatial resolution over a smaller field of view.

The specific angle of the collimator 512 in these embodiments isselected based on the distance between the x-ray device 540 and theobject 562 which, in turn, can determine the angle (relative to thedetector element 548) of the backscattered radiation. The smaller thisdistance, the smaller the angle of the backscattered radiation and thesmaller the angle of the collimator (relative to the plane of thedetector element). The larger this distance, the larger the angle of thebackscattered radiation and the larger the angle of the collimator.

The detector elements 548 can have different configurations. Forexamples, the detector elements can have different shapes, differentsizes, and different angles. This allows them to capture differentimages of the desired object, which can still be used to create a 3Dimage provided the reconstruction algorithm is modified accordingly. Insome embodiments, the detector elements can be configured so that theyindividually or collectively lower and raise, i.e., move along any angleand from a flat position to an angled position. The collimator canlikewise be configured so that it can change angles as needed.

The different images collected by the detector elements can then be usedto create a 3D image. The multiple 2D views of the same location on thesample that are collected can be used by a 3-D reconstruction algorithmto achieve 3-D images of the object that is imaged similar to themethods described herein.

Virtually any object that is small enough can be imaged by the handheldx-ray devices described herein. Of course, larger objects can be imaged,by the handheld x-ray device would become larger and heavier and at somepoint, would cease to be handheld even though it is still portable.

In some embodiments, the object 562 to be imaged (such as theillustrated key) can be embedded in a matrix 560. The matrix 560 can bemade of plastic or other material having a sufficiently differentdensity from the key so that the backscatter signal is significantlydifferent from the object 562 than from the matrix material. In otherembodiments, though, the object need not be embedded in such a matrix.Each detector element 548 can provide a different view of the object562, as discussed above. By utilizing the multiple different images,along with a 3-D reconstruction algorithm, a 3-D image 582 of the objectcan be obtained and displayed on the display 580.

The 3-D backscatter x-ray imaging with a handheld device 540 provides anadvantage relative to some current devices and methods in that they canbe easily transported and used by a single operator, can be held inplace while the image is being collected, and the 3-D imagereconstruction allows the operator to obtain depth information that isnot available in a 2-D image. Similarly, because the device is hand-heldand the 3-D image may be provided in real time, the device may beadjusted and manipulated to provide different view of the object beingviewed. This flexibility in use may provide for additional confidence inassessing the nature of the object. For example if a user is inspectingan airframe for stress, the ability to explore any anomalies fromdifferent viewpoints may provide for increased safety and decreaseddowntime for the aircraft.

These handheld devices 540 are significantly lighter than the devicesdescribed in FIG. 1-4. This decreased weight is due to that fact thatthe handheld devices 540 contain no motor for rotation, because thehandheld devices 540 contain much smaller detectors, and because theycan contain a low-power battery-powered x-ray module.

These handheld x-ray devices 540, however, suffer from the drawback thatthe use of a collimator can result in high dosages. Collimating thex-rays in these devices can cause difficulties because only a smallamount of radiation can impinge on the detector elements. With lessradiation striking the detector, the x-ray dosage has to be increasedand the size of the x-ray tube has to be increased in order to obtainthe desired image resolution. But increased x-ray dosages can lead tosafety problems.

To overcome these drawbacks, the handheld x-ray devices can be modifiedwith other configurations that do not use collimators. These embodimentsare illustrated in FIGS. 14-16. In these embodiments, the handheld x-raydevice 640 contains a base 660, housing 642 enclosing the x-ray tube610, power system 670, and electronics 674 similar to the embodimentsdescribed in FIGS. 5-13. The handheld x-ray device 640, however, uses amoving pencil beam 605 of x-ray radiation instead of a cone beam. Thismoving pencil beam 605 can be created by limiting the aperture of thex-ray tube 610 to a very small size and/or by limiting the window 620 ofthe x-ray device 640 to the desired width of the pencil beam. As well,if needed, a collimator (not shown) can be placed between the x-raydevice 640 and the desired object to limit the size and orientation ofthe x-ray beam as shown in FIG. 14. As shown in FIGS. 14-15, the movingpencil beam 605 is emitted from different locations of the aperture ofthe x-ray tube 610 and so can emerge from the handheld device 640 withmultiple orientations that can be used to raster-scan the desired object562.

The x-ray devices 640 in these embodiments also contain multipledetectors. In the configurations illustrated in FIG. 14, the x-raydevice 640 contains multiple, un-collimated, discrete detectors 648 thatare attached to a support 646 of the device 640. The detectors 648 canhave any shape or size, including those described herein. The detectors648 can be also located off-axis with respect to the x-ray source withinthe x-ray tube 610. In other words, the detectors 648 can be located atan angle relative to the x-ray beam 605. In some configurations, thedetectors 648 in these configurations can be much larger than themultiple detector elements illustrated in FIGS. 5-13.

As the pencil beam is raster scanned across the surface of the sample,the backscatter x-ray intensity is measured on each detector 648 as afunction of the beam position. Since the incident x-ray beam isilluminating a single volume within the sample, differences in intensityfrom detector to detector are indicative of the absorbing material inthe beam path from the scattering location to the detector. Bycollecting the scattered intensity from multiple detector angles, 3Dreconstruction techniques can be used to determine the density of theabsorbing material in the beam paths. That information can be used toreconstruct a full 3D volume image of the total irradiated samplevolume.

In the embodiments shown in FIG. 14, the multiple detectors 648 comprisemultiple concentric circles located outward from the window 620. Each ofthe detectors are discrete from each other so that they detect thesamples at different angles. While there are two detectors illustratedin FIG. 14, the device 640 could contain any numbers of detectors (i.e.,3, 4, 5, 6, etc.).

In other embodiments, the handheld x-ray device 640 contains themultiple, un-collimated, discrete detectors 648 as shown in FIG. 15. Anynumber of large detectors can be used, including as few as 2 (asillustrated) and as many as desired in the final handheld device giventhe size and weight restrictions of the handheld operation. In someconfigurations, an array of 6 detectors can be used similar to thoseshown in FIGS. 5-13 but without the collimators. These detectors 648 canbe oriented so that the backscattered radiation 625 from the object 562will impinge on them.

In these embodiments, the pencil x-ray beam 605 will be raster-scannedin 2 dimensions across the desired object 562. This raster-scanningaction will be performed in a first orientation 670 as shown in FIG. 16to collect a first series of 2D backscatter images. The number of imageswill be the same as the number of detectors used. So if there are 6detectors, 6 2D backscatter images will be collected. These six 2Dimages can be used to can be used to reconstruct a full 3D volume imageof the total irradiated sample volume.

Even though with multiple detectors there is no need to move the deviceto a 2^(nd) orientation, in some embodiments this action can beperformed. In these embodiments, the handheld device 640 will then berotated and the raster-scanning action will be performed in a secondorientation 680 as shown in FIG. 16 to collect a second series of 2Dbackscatter images. The handheld device 640 can then be rotated and theraster-scanning action will be performed in a third orientation 690 asshown in FIG. 16 to collect a third series of 2D backscatter image.Additional rotations and scanning processes can be performed, as neededto increase the image resolution.

Since the detector and source are positioned off-axis, multiple 2-Dimages can be obtained. Using 3-D computed tomography algorithmssubstantially similar to those described above, a 3-D image can beobtained by the reconstruction of the 3-D volume from these 2-Dprojections. This multiple image collection can occur at various angles,resulting in a 3-D volume reconstruction as described in detail above.

In some embodiments, a method of imaging an object comprises: providinga handheld apparatus for imaging an object containing a radiation sourcefor irradiating an object with a raster scan pencil beam of radiationand multiple detectors configured to detect scattered radiation from theobject, wherein the detectors and the radiation source are orientedoff-axis relative to each other; raster scanning the object with thehandheld apparatus to obtain a series of two dimensional images of theobject; and creating a three dimensional image of the object using theseries of two dimensional images. In this method of claim, the multipledetectors are configured to collected multiple 2D images at variousangles.

With respect to the use of substantially any plural and/or singularterms herein, those having skill in the art can translate from theplural to the singular and/or from the singular to the plural as isappropriate to the context and/or application. The varioussingular/plural permutations may be expressly set forth herein for sakeof clarity.

In addition to any previously indicated modification, numerous othervariations and alternative arrangements may be devised by those skilledin the art without departing from the spirit and scope of thisdescription, and appended claims are intended to cover suchmodifications and arrangements. Thus, while the information has beendescribed above with particularity and detail in connection with what ispresently deemed to be the most practical and preferred aspects, it willbe apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that numerousmodifications, including, but not limited to, form, function, manner ofoperation and use may be made without departing from the principles andconcepts set forth herein. Also, as used herein, the examples andembodiments, in all respects, are meant to be illustrative only andshould not be construed to be limiting in any manner.

1. An apparatus for imaging an object, comprising: a radiation sourceadapted to irradiate an object with a radiation beam; a plurality ofdetector elements adapted to detect scattered radiation from the object,wherein each of the plurality of detector elements is arranged to viewthe object from a different direction, the plurality of detectorelements configured to collect a plurality of two-dimensional images ofthe object substantially simultaneously, each of the plurality oftwo-dimensional images taken from a different direction; and a processorconfigured to compute a three-dimensional representation of the objectfrom the plurality of two-dimensional images.
 2. The apparatus of claim1, wherein the apparatus comprises a collimator for separating eachdetector element into detector segments.
 3. The apparatus of claim 2,wherein the collimator comprises a grid that restricts the backscatteredradiation impinging on each detector segment.
 4. The apparatus of claim1, wherein each detector element has an adjustable orientation anglewith respect to the plane of object.
 5. The apparatus of claim 4,wherein the orientation angle is about 0 degrees so that some of theplurality of detector elements are disposed in a plane substantiallyparallel to the plane of the object.
 6. The apparatus of claim 1,further comprising a housing enclosing the radiation source and alsoenclosing an internal power source.
 7. The apparatus of claim 2, whereinthe collimator comprises a reverse-focusing collimator.
 8. The apparatusof claim 2, wherein the collimator comprises a focusing collimator. 9.The apparatus of claim 2, wherein the collimator comprises a parallelplate collimator.
 10. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the radiationbeam comprises X-rays.
 11. A method of imaging an object, comprising:providing an apparatus for imaging an object, the apparatus including aradiation source and a plurality of detector elements, wherein eachdetector element is arranged to view of the object from a differentdirection; irradiating the object with a radiation beam from theradiation source to produce scattered radiation from the object;detecting, by the plurality of detector elements, the scatteredradiation to produce a plurality of two-dimensional images of theobject, the plurality of two-dimensional images taken substantiallysimultaneously, each of the plurality of two-dimensional images takenfrom a different direction; and computing, by a processor, athree-dimensional representation of the object from the plurality oftwo-dimensional images.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein theapparatus comprises a collimator for separating each detector elementinto detector segments.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein thecollimator comprises a parallel plate collimator, a reverse-focusingcollimator, or a focusing collimator.
 14. The method of claim 11,wherein each detector element has an adjustable orientation angle withrespect to the plane of object.
 15. The method of claim 14, wherein theorientation angle is about 0 degrees so that some of the plurality ofdetector elements are disposed on a plane substantially parallel to theplane of the object.
 16. The method of claim 14, wherein the apparatusfurther includes a housing enclosing the radiation source and alsoenclosing an internal power source.
 17. The method of claim 11, whereinthe radiation beam comprises X-rays.
 18. The method of claim 12, whereinthe collimator comprises a grid that restricts the scattered radiationimpinging on each detector segment.
 19. A method for imaging an object,the method comprising: providing an apparatus for imaging an object, theapparatus containing a radiation source and multiple, discretedetectors; using the apparatus to raster-scan a pencil beam of radiationacross an object; detecting scattered radiation from the object in eachof the multiple detectors; generating a plurality of two-dimensionalimages from the detected radiation; and using the two dimensional imagesto construct a volumetric, three-dimensional image of the object. 20.The method of claim 19, wherein the radiation beam comprises X-rays. 21.The method of claim 19, wherein the multiple detectors and the radiationsource are oriented off-axis relative to each other.
 22. The method ofclaim 19, wherein the multiple detectors collect multipletwo-dimensional images at various orientations relative to the object.23. The method of claim 19, wherein the beam intensity of the scatteredradiation is different between the multiple detectors.
 24. The method ofclaim 23, wherein the different beam intensities are indicative of theabsorbing material of the object in the beam path of the scatteredradiation.
 25. The method of claim 19, wherein the raster-scanning isperformed with multiple orientations of the apparatus relative to theobject.
 26. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the apparatus isconfigured to be handheld.
 27. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein theradiation beam is a cone beam.
 28. The method of claim 11, wherein theapparatus is configured to be handheld, and where the irradiating stepcomprises holding the apparatus in a user's hands.
 29. The method ofclaim 11, wherein the radiation beam is a cone beam.
 30. The method ofclaim 19, wherein the apparatus is configured to be handheld, and wherethe step of using the apparatus to raster-scan a pencil beam comprisesholding the apparatus in a user's hands.